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Fundamentals of Telecommunications
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Fundamentals of Telecommunications - 2005
Second Edition
Roger L. Freeman
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
Contents
Preface xxiii
Chapter 1 Introductory Concepts 1
1.1 What Is Telecommunication? 1
1.2 Telecommunication Will Touch Everybody 1
1.3 Introductory Topics in Telecommunications 2
1.3.1 End-Users, Nodes, and Connectivities 2
1.3.2 Telephone Numbering and Routing 5
1.3.3 The Use of Tandem Switches in a Local Area Connectivity 7
1.3.4 Introduction to the Busy Hour and Grade of Service 7
1.3.5 Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full Duplex 9
1.3.6 One-Way and Two-Way Circuits 9
1.3.7 Network Topologies 10
1.3.8 Variations in Traffic Flow 13
1.4 Quality of Service 14
1.5 Standardization in Telecommunications 15
1.6 The Organization of the PSTN in the United States 16
1.6.1 Points of Presence 16
Review Exercises 17
References 18
Chapter 2 Signals Convey Intelligence 19
2.1 Chapter Objective 19
2.2 Signals in Everyday Life 19
2.3 Basic Concepts of Electricity for Communications 20
2.3.1 Early Sources of Electrical Current 20
2.3.2 The Electrical Telegraph: An Early Form of Long-Distance Communications 21
2.3.3 What Is Frequency? 23
2.4 Electrical Signals 28
2.4.1 Introduction to Transmission 28
2.4.2 Modulation 28
2.4.3 Binary Digital Signals 29
2.5 Introduction to Transporting Electrical Signals 31
2.5.1 Wire Pair 31
2.5.2 Coaxial Cable Transmission 34
2.5.3 Fiber-Optic Cable 35
2.5.4 Radio Transmission 36
Review Exercises 38
References 38
Chapter 3 Quality of Service and Telecommunication Impairments 41
3.1 Objective 41
3.2 Quality of Service: Voice, Data, and Image 41
3.2.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 41
3.2.2 Voice Transmission 42
3.2.3 Data Circuits 44
3.2.4 Video (Television) 45
3.3 The Three Basic Impairments and How They Affect the End-User 45
3.3.1 Amplitude Distortion 46
3.3.2 Phase Distortion 46
3.3.3 Noise 48
3.4 Level 51
3.4.1 Typical Levels 51
3.5 Echo and Singing 52
Review Exercises 52
References 53
Chapter 4 Transmission and Switching: Cornerstones of a Network 55
4.1 Transmission and Switching Defined 55
4.2 Traffic Intensity Defines the Size of Switches and the Capacity of Transmission Links 55
4.2.1 Traffic Studies 55
4.2.2 Discussion of the Erlang and Poisson Traffic Formulas 61
4.2.3 Waiting Systems (Queueing) 63
4.2.4 Dimensioning and Efficiency 63
4.2.5 Quantifying Data Traffic 66
4.3 Introduction to Switching 67
4.3.1 Basic Switching Requirements 67
4.3.2 Concentration and Expansion 68
4.3.3 The Essential Functions of a Local Switch 68
4.3.4 Introductory Switching Concepts 70
4.3.5 Early Automatic Switching Systems 71
4.3.6 Common Control (Hard-Wired) 73
4.3.7 Stored Program Control 73
4.3.8 Concentrators and Remote Switching 74
4.4 Essential Concepts in Transmission 75
4.4.1 Introduction 75
4.4.2 Two-Wire and Four-Wire Transmission 75
4.5 Introduction to Multiplexing 78
4.5.1 Definition 78
4.5.2 Frequency Division Multiplex 79
4.5.3 Pilot Tones 84
4.5.4 Comments on the Employment and Disadvantages of FDM Systems 85
Review Exercises 85
References 87
Chapter 5 Transmission Aspects of Voice Telephony 89
5.1 Chapter Objective 89
5.2 Definition of the Voice Channel 90
5.2.1 The Human Voice 90
5.3 Operation of the Telephone Subset 91
5.3.1 The Subset Mouthpiece or Transmitter 93
5.3.2 The Subset Earpiece or Receiver 93
5.4 Subscriber Loop Design 93
5.4.1 Basic Design Considerations 93
5.4.2 Subscriber Loop Length Limits 94
5.4.3 Designing a Subscriber Loop 95
5.4.4 Extending the Subscriber Loop 97
5.4.5 “Cookbook” Design Methods for Subscriber Loops 98
5.4.6 Present North American Loop Design Rules 101
5.5 Design of Local Area Wire-Pair Trunks (Junctions) 102
5.5.1 Introduction 102
5.5.2 Inductive Loading of Wire-Pair Trunks (Junctions) 102
5.5.3 Local Trunk (Junction) Design Considerations 103
5.6 VF Repeaters (Amplifiers) 103
Review Exercises 104
References 105
Chapter 6 Digital Networks 107
6.1 Introduction to Digital Transmission 107
6.1.1 Two Different PCM Standards 108
6.2 Basis of Pulse Code Modulation 108
6.2.1 Sampling 108
6.2.2 Quantization 109
6.2.3 Coding 113
6.3 PCM System Operation 118
6.4 Line Code 119
6.5 Signal-to-Gaussian-Noise Ratio on PCM Repeatered Lines 120
6.6 Regenerative Repeaters 121
6.7 PCM System Enhancements 122
6.7.1 Enhancements to DS1 122
6.7.2 Enhancements to E1 122
6.8 Higher-Order PCM Multiplex Systems 122
6.8.1 Introduction 122
6.8.2 Stuffing and Justification 122
6.8.3 North American Higher-Level Multiplex 123
6.8.4 European E1 Digital Hierarchy 124
6.9 Long-Distance PCM Transmission 126
6.9.1 Transmission Limitations 126
6.9.2 Jitter and Wander 127
6.9.3 Distortion 127
6.9.4 Thermal Noise 127
6.9.5 Crosstalk 128
6.10 Digital Loop Carrier 128
6.10.1 New Versions of DSL 128
6.11 Digital Switching 128
6.11.1 Advantages and Issues of Digital Switching 128
6.11.2 Approaches to PCM Switching 129
6.11.3 Review of Some Digital Switching Concepts 135
6.12 Digital Network 137
6.12.1 Introduction 137
6.12.2 Technical Requirements of the Digital Network 137
6.12.3 Digital Network Performance Requirements 142
Review Exercises 145
References 146
Chapter 7 Signaling 149
7.1 What Is the Purpose of Signaling? 149
7.2 Defining the Functional Areas 149
7.2.1 Supervisory Signaling 149
7.2.2 Address Signaling 150
7.2.3 Call Progress: Audible-Visual 150
7.3 Signaling Techniques 150
7.3.1 Conveying Signaling Information 150
7.3.2 Evolution of Signaling 151
7.3.3 Subscriber Call Progress Tones and Push-Button Codes (North America) 158
7.4 Compelled Signaling 158
7.5 Concepts of Link-by-Link Versus End-to-End Signaling 160
7.6 Effects of Numbering on Signaling 161
7.7 Associated and Disassociated Channel Signaling 162
7.8 Signaling in the Subscriber Loop 164
7.8.1 Background and Purpose 164
7.9 Metallic Trunk Signaling 165
7.9.1 Basic Loop Signaling 165
7.9.2 Reverse-Battery Signaling 165
Review Exercises 166
References 167
Chapter 8 Local and Long-Distance Networks 169
8.1 Chapter Objective 169
8.2 Makeup of the PSTN 169
8.2.1 The Evolving Local Network 169
8.2.2 What Affects Local Network Design? 170
8.3 Design of Long-Distance Networks 173
8.3.1 Introduction 173
8.3.2 Three Design Steps 173
8.3.3 Link Limitation 174
8.3.4 Numbering Plan Areas 175
8.3.5 Exchange Location 175
8.3.6 Hierarchy 175
8.3.7 Network Design Procedures 176
8.4 Traffic Routing in a National Network 180
8.4.1 New Routing Techniques 180
8.4.2 Logic of Routing 181
8.4.3 Call-Control Procedures 183
8.4.4 Applications 183
8.5 Transmission Factors in Long-Distance Telephony 187
8.5.1 Introduction 187
8.5.2 Echo 187
8.5.3 Singing 188
8.5.4 Causes of Echo and Singing 188
8.5.5 Transmission Design to Control Echo and Singing 190
8.5.6 Introduction to Transmission-Loss Engineering 191
8.5.7 Loss Plan for Digital Networks (United States) 193
Review Exercises 193
References 194
Chapter 9 Concepts in Transmission Transport 195
9.1 Objective 195
9.2 Radio Systems 196
9.2.1 Scope 196
9.2.2 Introduction to Radio Transmission 196
9.2.3 Line-of-Sight Microwave 197
9.2.4 Fades, Fading, and Fade Margins 212
9.2.5 Diversity and Hot-Standby 215
9.2.6 Frequency Planning and Frequency Assignment 216
9.3 Satellite Communications 217
9.3.1 Introduction 217
9.3.2 The Satellite 217
9.3.3 Three Basic Technical Problems 217
9.3.4 Frequency Bands: Desirable and Available 219
9.3.5 Multiple Access to a Communication Satellite 220
9.3.6 Earth Station Link Engineering 223
9.3.7 Digital Communication by Satellite 228
9.3.8 Very-Small-Aperture Terminal (VSAT) Networks 229
9.4 Fiber-Optic Communication Links 231
9.4.1 Applications 231
9.4.2 Introduction to Optical Fiber as a Transmission Medium 232
9.4.3 Types of Optical Fiber 234
9.4.4 Splices and Connectors 234
9.4.5 Light Sources 236
9.4.6 Light Detectors 237
9.4.7 Optical Fiber Amplifiers 239
9.4.8 Wavelength Division Multiplexing 240
9.4.9 Fiber-Optic Link Design 241
9.5 Coaxial Cable Transmission Systems 244
9.5.1 Introduction 244
9.5.2 Description 244
9.5.3 Cable Characteristics 245
9.6 Transmission Media Summary 246
Review Exercises 247
References 248
Chapter 10 Data Communications 251
10.1 Chapter Objective 251
10.2 The Bit—A Review 251
10.3 Removing Ambiguity: Binary Convention 252
10.4 Coding 252
10.5 Errors in Data Transmission 254
10.5.1 Introduction 254
10.5.2 Nature of Errors 255
10.5.3 Error Detection and Error Correction 255
10.6 dc Nature of Data Transmission 258
10.6.1 dc Loops 258
10.6.2 Neutral and Polar dc Transmission Systems 258
10.7 Binary Transmission and the Concept of Time 259
10.7.1 Introduction 259
10.7.2 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission 260
10.7.3 Timing 262
10.7.4 Bits, Bauds, and Symbols 263
10.7.5 Digital Data Waveforms 264
10.8 Data Interface: The Physical Layer 265
10.9 Digital Transmission on an Analog Channel 267
10.9.1 Introduction 267
10.9.2 Modulation–Demodulation Schemes 267
10.9.3 Critical Impairments to the Transmission of Data 268
10.9.4 Channel Capacity 272
10.9.5 Modem Selection Considerations 272
10.9.6 Equalization 276
10.9.7 Data Transmission on the Digital Network 277
10.10 What Are Data Protocols? 278
10.10.1 Basic Protocol Functions 279
10.10.2 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) 280
10.10.3 High-Level Data-Link Control: A Typical Link-Layer Protocol 284
Review Exercises 287
References 289
Chapter 11 Enterprise Networks I: Local Area Networks 291
11.1 What Do Enterprise Networks Do? 291
11.2 Local Area Networks (LANs) 291
11.3 LAN Topologies 292
11.4 Baseband LAN Transmission Considerations 294
11.5 Overview of ANSI/IEEE LAN Protocols 295
11.5.1 Introduction 295
11.5.2 How LAN Protocols Relate to OSI 295
11.5.3 Logical Link Control (LLC) 297
11.6 LAN Access Protocols 298
11.6.1 Introduction 298
11.6.2 CSMA and CSMA/CD Access Techniques 300
11.6.3 Token Ring and FDDI 306
11.7 LAN Interworking via Spanning Devices 308
11.7.1 Repeaters 308
11.7.2 LAN Bridges 309
11.7.3 Routers 310
11.7.4 Hubs and Switching Hubs 311
Review Exercises 312
References 312
Chapter 12 Enterprise Networks II: Wide Area Networks 315
12.1 Wide Area Network Deployment 315
12.1.1 Introductory Comments 315
12.2 The Concept of Packet Data Communications 318
12.3 TCP/IP and Related Protocols 319
12.3.1 Background and Scope 319
12.3.2 TCP/IP and Data-Link Layers 320
12.3.3 IP Routing Algorithm 322
12.3.4 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) 324
12.4 Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN) 327
12.4.1 Background and Objectives 327
12.4.2 The Future of ISDN 327
12.5 Speeding Up the Network: Frame Relay 328
12.5.1 Rationale and Background 328
12.5.2 The Genesis of Frame Relay 329
12.5.3 Introduction to Frame Relay Operation 330
12.5.4 Frame Structure 331
12.5.5 Traffic and Billing on a Frame Relay Network 333
12.5.6 Congestion Control: A Discussion 334
12.5.7 Quality of Service Parameters 336
Review Exercises 337
References 338
Chapter 13 Metropolitan Area Networks 341
13.1 Definition of a Metropolitan Area Network 341
13.2 Design Approaches 341
13.3 Fiber-Optic Ring Network 341
13.4 IEEE 802.11 System 342
13.5 IEEE 802.15 Standard 344
13.5.1 Differences Between 802.11 and 802.15 344
13.6 IEEE 802.16 Standard 348
13.6.1 IEEE 802.16 MAC Requirements 348
Review Exercises 359
References 360
Chapter 14 CCITT Signaling System No. 7 361
14.1 Introduction 361
14.2 Overview of SS No. 7 Architecture 362
14.3 SS No. 7 Relationship to OSI 363
14.4 Signaling System Structure 364
14.4.1 Signaling Network Management 366
14.5 The Signaling Data Link Layer (Layer 1) 367
14.6 The Signaling Link Layer (Layer 2) 368
14.6.1 Signal Unit Delimitation and Alignment 368
14.6.2 Error Detection 369
14.6.3 Error Correction 369
14.6.4 Flow Control 370
14.6.5 Basic Signal Unit Format 370
14.7 Signaling Network Functions and Messages (Layer 3) 372
14.7.1 Introduction 372
14.7.2 Signaling Message-Handling Functions 372
14.8 Signaling Network Structure 374
14.8.1 Introduction 374
14.8.2 International and National Signaling Networks 374
14.9 Signaling Performance—Message Transfer Part 375
14.9.1 Basic Performance Parameters 375
14.9.2 Traffic Characteristics 376
14.9.3 Transmission Parameters 376
14.9.4 Signaling Link Delays over Terrestrial and Satellite Links 376
14.10 Numbering Plan for International Signaling Point Codes 377
14.11 Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) 378
14.11.1 Introduction 378
14.11.2 Services Provided by the SCCP 378
14.11.3 Peer-to-Peer Communication 379
14.11.4 Connection-Oriented Functions: Temporary Signaling Connections 379
14.11.5 Structure of the SCCP 380
14.12 User Parts 381
14.12.1 Introduction 381
14.12.2 Telephone User Part (TUP) 382
Review Exercises 384
References 385
Chapter 15 Voice-Over Packets in a Packet Network 387
15.1 An Overview of the Concept 387
15.2 Data Transmission Versus Conventional Digital Telephony 387
15.3 Drawbacks and Challenges for Transmitting Voice on Data Packets 388
15.4 VoIP, Introductory Technical Description 389
15.4.1 VoIP Gateway 390
15.4.2 An IP Packet as Used for VoIP 392
15.4.3 The Delay Tradeoff 392
15.4.4 Lost Packet Rate 394
15.4.5 Echo and Echo Control 395
15.5 Media Gateway Controller and Its Protocols 395
15.5.1 Overview of the ITU-T Rec. H.323 Standard 396
15.5.2 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) 397
15.5.3 Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) 397
15.5.4 Megaco or ITU-T Rec. H.248 (Ref. 13) 398
Review Exercises 400
References 401
Chapter 16 Television Transmission 403
16.1 Background and Objectives 403
16.2 An Appreciation of Video Transmission 404
16.2.1 Additional Definitions 406
16.3 The Composite Signal 407
16.4 Critical Video Parameters 409
16.4.1 General 409
16.4.2 Transmission Standard—Level 409
16.4.3 Other Parameters 409
16.5 Video Transmission Standards (Criteria for Broadcasters) 411
16.5.1 Color Transmission 411
16.5.2 Standardized Transmission Parameters (Point-to-Point TV) 413
16.6 Methods of Program Channel Transmission 413
16.7 The Transmission of Video Over LOS Microwave 414
16.7.1 Bandwidth of the Baseband and Baseband Response 414
16.7.2 Preemphasis 414
16.7.3 Differential Gain 414
16.7.4 Differential Phase 415
16.7.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (10 kHz to 5 MHz) 415
16.7.6 Continuity Pilot 416
16.8 TV Transmission by Satellite Relay 416
16.9 Digital Television 417
16.9.1 Introduction 417
16.9.2 Basic Digital Television 417
16.9.3 Bit Rate Reduction—Compression Techniques 418
16.9.4 An Overview of the MPEG-2 Compression Technique 420
16.10 Conference Television 423
16.10.1 Introduction 423
16.10.2 The pX64 kbps Codec 423
16.11 Brief Overview of Frame Transport for Video Conferencing 427
16.11.1 Basic Principle 427
Review Exercises 428
References 429
Chapter 17 Community Antenna Television (Cable Television) 431
17.1 Objective and Scope 431
17.2 The Evolution of CATV 432
17.2.1 The Beginnings 432
17.2.2 Early System Layouts 433
17.3 System Impairments and Performance Measures 434
17.3.1 Overview 434
17.3.2 dBmV and Its Applications 434
17.3.3 Thermal Noise in CATV Systems 435
17.3.4 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) Versus Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (C/N) in CATV Systems 436
17.3.5 The Problem of Cross-Modulation (Xm) 438
17.3.6 Gains and Levels for CATV Amplifiers 439
17.3.7 The Underlying Coaxial Cable System 439
17.3.8 Taps 440
17.4 Hybrid Fiber-Coax (HFC) Systems 441
17.4.1 Design of the Fiber-Optic Portion of an HFC System 441
17.5 Digital Transmission of CATV Signals 447
17.5.1 Approaches 447
17.5.2 Transmission of Uncompressed Video on CATV Trunks 447
17.5.3 Compressed Video 448
17.6 Two-Way CATV Systems 448
17.6.1 Introduction 448
17.6.2 Impairments Peculiar to Upstream Service 451
17.7 Two-Way Voice and Data over CATV Systems Based on the DOCSIS 2.0 Specification 451
17.7.1 General 451
17.7.2 Layer 1—Physical Layer 452
17.7.3 Layer 2—Data-Link Layer 453
17.7.4 Layer 3 and Above 454
17.8 Subsplit/Extended Subsplit Frequency Plan 454
17.9 Other General Information 454
17.9.1 Frequency Reuse 454
17.9.2 Cable Distance Limitations 454
Review Exercises 454
References 455
Chapter 18 Cellular and PCS Radio Systems 457
18.1 Introduction 457
18.1.1 Background 457
18.1.2 Scope and Objective 458
18.2 Basic Concepts of Cellular Radio 458
18.3 Radio Propagation in the Mobile Environment 462
18.3.1 The Propagation Problem 462
18.3.2 Propagation Models 463
18.4 Impairments: Fading in the Mobile Environment 464
18.4.1 Introduction 464
18.4.2 Diversity: A Technique to Mitigate the Effects of Fading and Dispersion 465
18.4.3 Cellular Radio Path Calculations 467
18.5 The Cellular Radio Bandwidth Dilemma 468
18.5.1 Background and Objectives 468
18.5.2 Bit Rate Reduction of the Digital Voice Channel 468
18.6 Network Access Techniques 468
18.6.1 Introduction 468
18.6.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 469
18.6.3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) 469
18.6.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 472
18.7 Frequency Reuse 476
18.8 Personal Communications Services (PCS) 478
18.8.1 Defining Personal Communications 478
18.8.2 Narrowband Microcell Propagation at PCS Distances 478
18.9 Cordless Telephone Technology 481
18.9.1 Background 481
18.9.2 North American Cordless Telephones 481
18.9.3 European Cordless Telephones 481
18.10 Wireless LANs 483
18.11 Mobile Satellite Communications 484
18.11.1 Background and Scope 484
18.11.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of LEO Systems 484
Review Exercises 485
References 486
Chapter 19 Advanced Broadband Digital Transport Formats 489
19.1 Objective and Scope 489
19.2 SONET 490
19.2.1 Introduction and Background 490
19.2.2 Synchronous Signal Structure 490
19.2.3 Add–Drop Multiplexer 499
19.3 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy 501
19.3.1 Introduction 501
19.3.2 SDH Standard Bit Rates 501
19.3.3 Interface and Frame Structure of SDH 502
Review Exercises 508
References 509
Chapter 20 Asynchronous Transfer Mode 511
20.1 Evolving Toward ATM 511
20.2 Introduction to ATM 512
20.3 User–Network Interface (UNI) and Architecture 514
20.4 The ATM Cell: Key to Operation 516
20.4.1 ATM Cell Structure 516
20.4.2 Idle Cells 520
20.5 Cell Delineation and Scrambling 520
20.6 ATM Layering and B-ISDN 521
20.6.1 Physical Layer 521
20.6.2 The ATM Layer 522
20.6.3 The ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) 523
20.7 Services: Connection-Oriented and Connectionless 526
20.7.1 Functional Architecture 527
20.8 B-ISDN/ATM Routing and Switching 528
20.8.1 The Virtual Channel Level 528
20.8.2 The Virtual Path Level 528
20.9 Signaling Requirements 530
20.9.1 Setup and Release of VCCs 530
20.9.2 Signaling Virtual Channels 530
20.10 Quality of Service (QoS) 531
20.10.1 ATM Quality of Service Review 531
20.10.2 Selected QoS Parameter Descriptions 531
20.11 Traffic Control and Congestion Control 532
20.12 Transporting ATM Cells 533
20.12.1 In the DS3 Frame 533
20.12.2 DS1 Mapping 534
20.12.3 E1 Mapping 534
20.12.4 Mapping ATM Cells into SDH 536
20.12.5 Mapping ATM Cells into SONET 537
Review Exercises 537
References 538
Chapter 21 Network Management 539
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کتاب اصول مخابرات - Fundamentals of Telecommunications 
